The classification of mineral deposits as natural objects must satisfy a number of principles for their justified division: the presence of a purpose for division; systematicity or correspondence of the ranks of classified objects, for example, it is impossible to compare ore occurrences and deposits; continuity of classification cells; consistency of subdivision foundations; the impossibility of including the same object in different classification cells; continuity of units; predictability of the properties of classified objects, etc. Based on them, there are groupings of deposits that differ in purpose and basis, which is the subject of extensive literature. Among the practically important ones, it is necessary to note the divisions of deposits according to the following criteria; the shape of ore bodies and ore-bearing zones; the degree of complexity of their structure - classification of the State Reserves Commission (GKZ) I; types of mineral raw materials

Types of deposits

Endogenous deposits. They are also called hypogene and are associated with the internal energy of the Earth. In this series, six groups are distinguished. Two groups - igneous and carbonatite - are formed from melts in the processes of their differentiation and segregation associated with intermediate, basic and ultrabasic magmas. The four remaining groups - pegmatite, albitite-greisen, skarn and hydrothermal - are associated with acidic, intermediate and alkaline igneous complexes and were formed at the late intrusive and costintrusive stages of their formation.

Exogenous (surface, supergene) deposits were formed as a result of mechanical, chemical and biochemical differentiation of the earth's crust under the influence of solar energy. Three groups are distinguished here: weathering, deposits in which are associated with ancient and modern weathering crust; sedimentary, the ores of which arose during mechanical, chemical, biochemical and volcanic differentiation of mineral matter in sedimentation basins, including placers and epigenetic, ore formation in which occurred in sedimentary rock basins in connection with the activity of ground or artesian groundwater

Metamorphogenic deposits arise in the deep zones of the earth's crust under the influence of the underlying conditions there. high pressures and temperatures. In this series, two groups of ore formations are distinguished: metamorphic, which includes previously formed deposits of any origin transformed in a new thermodynamic environment, and metamorphic proper, formed for the first time as a result of metamorphogenic transformation of mineral matter or caused by processes of hydrothermal-metamorphogenic concentration of dispersed ore elements or their compounds.

An important way to characterize the characteristics of ore mineralization in various territories is to understand the geological and ore formations.

Geological formations are natural complexes of rocks paragenetically related in time and space and mineral deposits associated with them. When studying formations, the processes studied by lithology are taken into account; petrology and tectonics. Formations are distinguished empirically on the basis of multiple, statistically established recurrence of certain rock paragenesis in similar structures. In relation to mineralization processes, the following groups of geological formations are distinguished:

1. ore-generating, in which industrial accumulations of ores are a natural component;

2. ore-bearing - although they contain ore deposits, their connection with mineralization is not defined;

3. ore-forming materials, which are a source of energy during the formation of deposits;

4. ore-bearing - contain products of ore genesis from eras older than the given formation.

In the 70s of the XX century. the doctrine of ore formations arose, developed by V. A. Kuznetsov, V. N. Kozerenko, D. I. Gorzhevsky, R. M. Konstantinov and others. An ore formation was understood as a natural community of ore formations united by similar paragenetic associations the main ore minerals and tectonic-magmatic conditions of occurrence, as well as similar features of the development of the ore process.

Ore formations combine deposits of similar composition that were formed in similar tectono-magmatic conditions, determined by the unity of the tectonic regime. The identified formations can be convergent, since they are determined by the main mineral parageneses and geological conditions that influenced the textural, structural and other features of the ores. The names of formations are determined by two main characteristics ─ the composition of the leading minerals or elements (metals) and the origin of the ore mass (genesis). For example, copper-nickel, sulfide-cassiterite hydrothermal, etc. The regular occurrence of endogenous ore formations is identified as genetic series, which are a natural association of ore formations associated with one igneous formation or a specific igneous complex. The systematics of the series is based on the tectonic principle and taking into account the sources of ore matter.

A separate ore formation and their series serve as the main unit of classification of mineral deposits and determine the metallogenic type of ore districts and provinces. One or more series of ore formations, united by their connection with certain types of magmas and various sources of matter, are isolated as genetic series. A series of formations associated with magmas are known: ultrabasic, basaltoid, traps, intracrustal granitoids, etc.

For a regional assessment of ore content, the concept of a metallogenic formation is used, which is understood as a complex of paregenetically related rocks of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic origin and associated mineral deposits, determined by the unity of origin in certain structural and formational conditions.

Mineral reserves ─ the amount of mineral raw materials in the bowels of the Earth, on its surface, at the bottom of reservoirs and in the volume of surface and groundwater, determined according to geological exploration data.

These data make it possible to calculate the volume of mineral bodies, and when multiplied by volume by density, they make it possible to determine mineral reserves in weight terms. When calculating reserves of liquid and gaseous minerals (oil, groundwater, flammable gas), in addition to the volumetric method, the method of calculating reserves by inflows in wells is used. For some mineral deposits, in addition, the amount of reserves of valuable components contained in them is calculated, for example, reserves of metals in ores. Mineral reserves in the subsoil are measured in m 3 (building materials, flammable gases, etc.), in tons (oil, coal, ores), in kilograms (precious metals) or in carats (diamonds). The magnitude of mineral reserves has varying reliability of their calculation, depending on the complexity of the geological structure of the deposits and the detail of their geological exploration.

Based on the degree of reliability of reserve determination, they are divided into categories. In the CIS, there is a classification of mineral reserves, dividing them into four categories: A, B, C1 and C2. Today, for almost all people, an automatic washing machine is something common from the entire list. household appliances, which the average family should have. Vestel washing machines, which are famous for their durability and quiet operation, have become extremely popular among the Russian-speaking population.

Category A includes thoroughly explored mineral reserves with precisely defined boundaries of mineral bodies, their shapes and structure, ensuring complete identification natural types and industrial grades of mineral raw materials in the depths of the deposit, as well as geological factors that determine the conditions for their extraction. Category B includes previously explored mineral reserves, with approximately defined contours of mineral bodies, without an accurate representation of the spatial location of natural types of mineral raw materials. Category C1 includes reserves of explored deposits of complex geological structure, as well as poorly explored mineral reserves in new areas or in areas immediately adjacent to detailed exploration areas of deposits; they are calculated taking into account extrapolation of geological data from detailed exploration areas of deposits.

Category C2 includes promising reserves identified outside the explored parts of deposits based on the interpretation of their geological structure, taking into account the analogy of similar and detailed mineral bodies.

Among the foreign ones, the American classification of mineral reserves is the most common. It distinguishes three categories of reserves: 1) measured (measured), determined on the basis of measurements in mine workings and drill holes, 2) verified (indicated), calculated when mining and drilling data are distributed beyond their limits, 3) inferred (inferred) , estimated from general geological data. According to the rules existing in the CIS countries, mineral deposits can be put into operation provided that they have a certain ratio of mineral reserves of various categories.

Groups of deposits by structural complexity

According to the degree of complexity of the geological structure, three groups of deposits with different ratios of categories of minerals are distinguished.

Group 1 includes mineral deposits of simple geological structure with a uniform distribution of valuable components; for this group, at least 30% of reserves must be explored in categories A and B, including at least 10% in category A.

Group 2 includes deposits of complex geological structure (at least 20% of reserves must be explored under category B).

The 3rd group includes deposits of a very complex geological structure and extremely low content of valuable components; design mining enterprises and selection capital investments for their construction or reconstruction is allowed if there are reserves of category C1.

On-balance sheet and off-balance sheet reserves

Mineral reserves, according to their suitability for use in the national economy, are divided into on-balance and off-balance.

Balance reserves include those mineral reserves that are expedient to be developed at the current level of technology and economics; Off-balance reserves include mineral reserves that, due to their small quantity, low quality, difficult operating or processing conditions, are currently not used, but in the future may be the object of industrial development. To determine the indicators of balance reserves of minerals, special calculations are made that characterize the industrial standards of mineral raw materials (the minimum thickness of mineral bodies, the minimum industrial content of valuable components in minerals and the maximum permissible inclusions of rocks); when a mineral deposit gradually merges with the surrounding rocks, the so-called cut-off content, that is, the content of the valuable component along which the boundary is drawn between the body of the mineral and its host rocks. In the CIS countries, approval of conditions for calculating reserves, checking the correctness of calculation of reserves, their distribution into balance sheet and off-balance sheet groups, as well as approval of reserves and determination of the readiness of a deposit for industrial development by category are entrusted to the State Commissions for Mineral Reserves, whose activities are regulated by national legislation.

Mineral deposits, according to the classification of V. Lindgren, proposed back in 1911, are divided into two main groups: deposits formed by mechanical processes; deposits formed chemical processes. Deposits of the second group are the most common. Depending on the environment of deposition, they are divided into three classes, formed: A - in surface waters, B - in rocks and from magma through its differentiation. Class B includes deposits associated with magmatic activity. They, in turn, are divided into hydrothermal (epi-, meso- and hypothermal) and emanation (contact-metasomatic, pyrometasomatic and fumarolic). V. Lindgren’s classification, at one time widespread, was subject to serious criticism by Soviet and some foreign scientists, especially in relation to hydrothermal me-deposits. S. S. Smirnov pointed out that V. Lindgren’s classification of hydrothermal deposits, the main principle of which is deposits of a known class, determined by the methods of extracting the substance, can be divided into subclasses formed in different physicochemical conditions. , igneous deposits of the juvenile class (I) will be sharply different from igneous deposits of the sialic class (IV).

Table 1

Genetic classification of endogenous deposits.

By I am N. Belevtsev

Genetic type	Genetic class	Genetic subclass
A. Symatic, or juvenile	I. Igneous, associated with ultramafic and mafic rocks II . Endohydrogenic, associated with the rise of fluids from subcrustal depths	1. Segregation (early magician matic) 2. Liquation 3. Late magmatic (hysteromagmatic) 4. Hydrogen zones of depths ny faults 5. Hydrogenous tectono-meta- somatic zones
B. Sialic, or bark	III .Metamorphic, associated with regional dynamothermal metamorphism IV. Ultrametamorphic, associated with granitization of rocks earth's crust	6. Metamorphosed 7.Metamorphic 8. Igneous, associated with granitoid plutons, polygenic formations 9.Pegmatite 10.Plutonohydrothermal
B. Polygenic (mixed)	V . Telethermal VI . Hydrothermal Post-granitization VII .Vulcanogenic-hydrothermal	11. Deep telethermal 12. Near-surface telethermal 13. Hydrothermal tectonometasomatic zones 14. Abyssal volcanic 15.Subvolcanic 16.Volcanic

Hydrothemal deposits are especially diverse in terms of concentration conditions, which can be formed with the help of juvenile subcrustal fluids (V), plutonohydrothermal (IV), metamorphogenic hydrothermal (VII) solutions or solutions of mixed origin.

Field (field) - definition

A deposit is a concentration of various minerals on the surface or in the depths of the Earth. Deposits can come to the surface of the Earth (open deposits) or be buried in subsoil(closed, or “blind” deposits). According to the conditions of formation, deposits are divided into series (exogenous, igneous and metamorphogenic deposits), and the series, in turn, are divided into groups, classes and subclasses. A mineral basin is an enclosed area of ​​continuous or nearly continuous distribution of stratified sedimentary minerals associated with a specific rock formation. Deposits of various minerals are searched for and found different ways, systematically and often unsystematically. Currently, any rational search begins with the preparation of a topographical basis used in the preparation of a geological map, which is then transformed into a structural-metallogenic and mineral map of the area.

2. Mineral minerals (ferrous, non-ferrous, noble and rare metals, etc.).

3. Non-metallic minerals (for chemical industry, building materials, etc.).

From an economic point of view, any deposit is characterized primarily by the quality of the mineral and its quantitative reserves.

Types of mineral deposits

The following types of mineral deposits are distinguished:

1. Fossil deposits.

1.1 Oil deposit— a set of deposits black gold in a certain area. Usually takes several hundred kilometers, oil production platforms are used for production, which are built during the drilling process. The main parameters characterizing oil fields: the geological structure of the field area, the location of the local structure relative to structures of a higher order, the presence of various structural plans, the characteristics of productive horizons and fluid seals, the types and number of traps and deposits, phase state of hydrocarbons in deposits, reserves, their area density, etc. An oil field can combine several structural levels, which greatly complicates its exploration and development, and requires the study of relationships in terms of contours deposits among themselves and with the contours of structures. According to the number of deposits, oil fields can be single-deposit or multi-deposit, and according to the phase content of hydrocarbons - oil, gas-oil, gas-condensate-oil.

An example of this type of deposit is the super-giant oil and gas field in Mexico - Chicontepec (22.1 billion tons), located on the east coast of Mexico. Opened in 1926. At the new largest field black gold It is planned to drill 17 thousand wells, which will significantly increase oil production abroad.

1.2 - a set of gas deposits confined to common area surface and controlled by a single structural element.

Gas fields are divided into multi-layer and single-layer. In the context of a multilayer gas field, there are several gas deposits in one area, located one below the other at different depths. Some gas deposits have independent gas-water contact. In separate intervals of the section of the same gas field there may be deposits of various types, and gas-bearing strata are represented by reservoirs of various genesis - cavernous, intergranular or fractured. The overwhelming majority of the gas field is spatially generalized, grouped in gas accumulation zones and distributed in gas- or gas-oil-bearing areas of platform (arch uplifts, intraplatform depressions, etc.), geosynclinal (intermountain depressions, middle massifs) and transitional (foothill troughs and depressions) types. Natural gas is a gas mixture formed during the decomposition of organic substances. It lies in the bowels of the earth in a gaseous state in the form of separate accumulations, in the form of an oil cap of oil and gas fields, and also in a dissolved state (in black gold and in water).

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Synonyms:

The interpretations of the concept of “mineral deposit” generally accepted in modern domestic literature include, as a rule, two components: geological and economic. The geological component implies that a “deposit” is “...a section of the earth’s crust in which, as a result of certain geological processes, an accumulation of mineral matter occurred...” (Smirnov, 1969, p. 5) or simply “... a natural accumulation of minerals” ( Geological Dictionary, 1973, vol. 1, p. 423; Instruction..., 1987, p. 43; Krivtsov, Terentyev, 1991, p. 52-53). And this natural accumulation of mineral matter, under certain conditions, may be of some interest to someone from a scientific or technical point of view. The economic component of the concept determines the conditions under which this “natural accumulation of mineral matter” can be suitable for industrial use. In other words, the quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence of the “mineral substance” must be favorable for industrial development, which could be carried out in the past, is being carried out now or may be carried out in the future, depending on changes in the economic environment in relation to a particular mineral resource.

From a geological point of view, the concept under consideration can be detailed according to the conditions of formation (endogenous, exogenous, hydrothermal, sedimentary, etc.), according to the morphology of ore bodies (stockwork, vein, strata, etc.), according to the type of mineral and other characteristics.

From an economic point of view, the concept of “mineral deposit” is detailed depending on the volume of reserves (unique, large, medium, small). If the “natural accumulation of mineral matter” in terms of the content and quality of the useful component does not meet the current industrial requirements or has not yet been sufficiently studied, then it is no longer considered in the category of “deposit”, but in the category of “mineral occurrence (ore occurrence)” ( Geological Dictionary, 1973; Instruction..., 1987; Krivtsov, Terentyev, 1991). In the process of additional exploration or when the situation changes, an ore occurrence may move into the “deposit” category. At the same time, it is characteristic that the economic parameters of the object (the volume of the ore mass and the content of the useful component in it) are in a certain dependence on the geological conditions of its formation. This allows us to formulate and look for ways to solve problems concerning localization conditions and specific features of the genesis of large deposits (Rundqvist, Kravchenko, 1996).

In this work, the term “mineral deposit” is applied to natural endogenous accumulations of mineral matter that are or have been the subject of industrial development, or may become so in the future with changes in technology and economic conditions. The main attention in the work is paid to deposits of metallic minerals. Many works have been devoted to the issues of typification of ore deposits, including deposits in the East of Russia. In the domestic literature, formational classifications of ore deposits have developed especially intensively in the recent past. The development of these classifications led to the emergence large quantity classification schemes proposed by different authors and not always in good agreement with each other. For example, for tin deposits alone, about 20 formational classifications have been proposed in the domestic literature, developed by different authors using different classification criteria. The same can be said about deposits of other metals. This situation, naturally, does not contribute to mutual understanding among geologists studying ore deposits, working in different regions and holding different views on certain formational classifications. Moreover, the presence of a large number of formational classifications of deposits of individual metals, as well as a significant number of complex ore objects, prevents a correct understanding of the place of the corresponding deposits and their types in the overall system of ore formations.

At the same time, formational classifications of ore deposits have not found support in the English-language geological literature. Adopting a pragmatic approach, foreign researchers, without generally abandoning the development of “monometal” classifications, largely adhere to the general classification of ore deposits by model types.

In this work, we tried to bring all the diversity of deposits in the East of Russia to a single classification scheme, using extensive domestic and Foreign experience development of similar classification schemes.

Metallic and, partly, non-metallic deposits in the East of Russia are classified into various model types, a description of which is given below. The typification of deposits considered in this work was based on both descriptive and genetic information, which is systematized in order to highlight the most significant properties of each specific type deposits. The characterization of some types is based primarily on empirical data, which are recognized as significant, even if their genetic relationships are not fully understood or unknown. An example of a descriptive model type of deposits is the type of native copper deposits in basalts. In this case, an important empirical characteristic is the association of copper sulfides with metabasalts or greenstone rock associations. Other types are more based on genetic (theoretical) information, for example, the type of tungsten skarn deposits. Here the genetic process, as a fundamental phenomenon, is accepted as the main classification attribute.

The following three basic principles formed the basis for the classification given below of the model types of ore deposits in the East of Russia.

(1) Ore-forming processes are closely related to rock-forming processes (Obruchev, 1928), and ore deposits arise due to the differentiation of matter as a result of its constant circulation in the sedimentary, magmatic and metamorphic cycles of the formation of rocks and geological structures (Smirnov, 1969).

(2) The classification should be as simple, convenient and understandable to the consumer as possible.

(3) The classification should be such that new types of deposits can be added to it in the future (Cox and Singer, 1986). The typification given below is based on the consolidated genetic classification of ore deposits developed by V.I. Smirnov (1969), taking into account a number of provisions and approaches used in the taxonomies of O.R. Ekstrand (Extrand, 1984), D.P. Cox and D.A. Singer (Cox, Singer, 1986). Using the basic principles and approaches briefly described above in the classification of deposits in the East of Russia given below, the deposits are grouped into five hierarchical levels of organization of metallogenic taxa, in accordance with the following main features of the classified objects: (a) conditions for the formation of host rocks and genetically associated with the deposits, (b) genetic characteristics of deposits and (c) mineral or elemental composition of ores:

Group of deposits

Deposit class

Deposit family

Type of deposits

Model type of deposits

The model type (model) of the deposit is adopted as the main classification unit, which to a certain extent corresponds to the concept of “ore formation”, which is more generally accepted in the domestic geological literature.

Field models are grouped into four large groups in accordance with the main geological processes with which the deposits are associated: (1) igneous; (2) sedimentary; (3) metamorphic; and (4) superficial. A group of exotic ore-forming processes has also been identified. Each group includes several classes. For example, the group of deposits associated with magmatic processes includes two classes: plutono- and volcanogenic deposits. Each class includes several species, etc. In the given classification, deposits associated with magmatic processes are subdivided in most detail, since such deposits are most common in the territory under consideration. Deposits of similar genesis, such as deposits of magnesian and calcareous skarns or porphyry-type deposits, are considered as part of one type with several model types within it.

A generalized description of each of the identified model types is accompanied by a more detailed description of one or more typical objects, the detail of the description of which varies depending on the amount of new data obtained by the authors during the research within the framework of this work. If new data differing from those already described in the literature have not been obtained, the description is given in abbreviated form with references to already published literary sources in which such information is more detailed.

Deposits mean accumulations of useful substances in various layers of the earth's crust, suitable for development and further use in industry. The main criteria for determining the economic significance of a deposit are the quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence of its main component. website

There are many systems for classifying deposits according to various criteria depending on the purpose of separation. Let us consider the main ones from the point of view of the industrial and economic feasibility of development and value for the national economy. offbank.ru

By use

Based on the type of main elements, deposits are usually divided into:

• Ore (metal). These are mineral deposits from which it is technologically possible and economically profitable to extract valuable metals or their compounds (ferrous, non-ferrous, noble and radioactive metals). The most widespread in the earth's crust are iron ores and bauxite (the main raw materials for the production of aluminum).
• Non-metallic (non-metallic). Stocks of substances that can be used in pure or processed form for various sectors of the economy (clay, gravel, sand, mineral fertilizers, salt).
• Flammable. Substances used for the production of fuel and as raw materials for the chemical and metallurgical industries (oil, coal, gas, oil shale). The most common type of fuel resource is coal. Its share among all combustible mineral reserves is about 75%. The remaining 25% is approximately equally divided between oil and combustible gas.
• Gemstones. Includes stocks of precious, semi-precious and ornamental stones (diamonds, emeralds, sapphires, opal, jasper and many others).
• Hydromineral. Surface and ground water for domestic and technical use. This type of deposit differs from all previous ones in its renewability. https://www.site/

Although the end of the oil era and limited reserves are regularly reported, this type of fossil fuel remains the most in demand. Almost every oil deposit also contains an accompanying substance - flammable gas, so in essence they are oil and gas. There are deposits of pure gas. The most significant oil reserves are located in the territories of the Persian Gulf countries, Russia and the United States. www.site

For nuclear energy, the main raw material is uranium. 45% of all explored and economically viable deposits are located in Australia, Kazakhstan and Canada.

Deposits of metal ores, including precious metals, are very significant for humanity. Geographically, they are not associated with sedimentary deposits, unlike oil deposits. Most of these deposits were formed as a result of movements of tectonic plates, forming basins of significant length, and their estimated location is quite predictable. https://www.site/

Gold occurs in nature in small quantities in the form of placers or nuggets; exploration and development of its reserves is associated with high costs, and the need for this metal is quite large.

There are no useless minerals. All of them find application to a greater or lesser extent and make human life easier. offbank.ru

By location

The depth of mineral deposits is the main factor determining the method of developing a deposit. Based on this criterion, reserves are divided into:

• Open - come out to the surface of the Earth or are located in the uppermost layers. They are mined by quarrying - such deposits are the simplest and most economical to develop, but the most destructive for landscapes. Quarries, unlike mines, are characterized by lower energy costs, high productivity and a degree of mechanization. As a result, the cost of final products extracted from open deposits is significantly lower. The quarry method is used to extract coal, ore, and non-metallic minerals.
• Closed - located in the deep depths. For their extraction, more technological methods are used - mines for solid minerals, pumping or fountain methods for pumping out oil. These methods are more expensive and also the most dangerous for the health and life of workers. website

According to the degree of reliability

This is one of the most important criteria economic justification development. In the CIS countries they adhere to a system that includes 4 groups:

1. Category A. Accurately and in detail explored reserves, about which all the main characteristics are known: the shape and size of the deposits, the grade and type of raw materials, production conditions.
2. Category B. Conditionally explored deposits without accurate data on size and spatial location.
3. Category C1. Poorly explored areas or reserves of complex geological structure.
4. Category C2. Promising deposits identified by the geological structure of the site. offbank.ru

By comparing these and many other factors, deposits are classified as:

• balance sheet, which makes sense to develop at the current level of development of technology and equipment;
• or off-balance sheet - they can be used in the future, but are not yet valuable due to small volumes, low quality of raw materials or geological features that make extraction difficult.

The variety of conditions under which different types of natural resources were formed explains the unevenness of their distribution, although there is a certain pattern. Thus, sedimentary rocks accumulated on the flat areas of tectonic plates, and now deposits of combustible substances are more likely to be found there. In folded formations of the earth's crust, minerals of igneous origin are most often formed. However, this distribution has many exceptions - often ore deposits are located on the plains, and oil is found in the mountains. https://www.site/

The export of natural resources is the basis of the Russian long-suffering economy. Most of them are exported. The greatest concentration and diversity of species is concentrated in Western Siberia - the most severe natural conditions and an area remote from main transport routes.

Industrial deposit type/genetic type	Structural and morphological type of ore bodies	Leading ore textures	Main ore minerals	The most typical associated components	Ore quality	Examples of deposits
1. Porphyry copper / hydrothemal	Stockworks		Chalcopyrite, chalcocite, molybdenite, pyrite	Au, Ag, Mo, Re, Se, Te	Poor, average	Chuquicamata Chile, Porgera (Papua), Grasberg (Indonesia), Brisby USA, Almalyk (Uzbekistan), Kounradskoye (Kazakhstan), Erdentuin-Obo (Mongolia), Mikheevskoye (Russia),
2. Cuprous sandstones and shales /hydrogenous (infiltration)	Layered and ribbon-like deposits	Vein-disseminated, interspersed	Chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite	Ag, Co, Re, Se, Te, Pb, Zn, S, Pt and PGM, sometimes uranium, vanadium	Average, rich	Udokan (Russia), Dzhezkazgan (Kazakhstan), Mansfeld (Germany), Lublin-Seroszowice (Poland), Ainak (Afghanistan), copper belt of Zambia and Zaire
3. Copper pyrite/hydrothermal-sedimentary	Layered and lens-shaped deposits	Massive, banded, interspersed	Pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, sometimes pyrrhotite	Au, Ag, Zn, S, Pb, Se, Cd, Co, In, Te, Ge	Average, less often rich	Gayskoye, Uchalinskoye, Podolskoye, (Russia), Outokumpu (Finland), Mount Isa (Australia), Riotinto (Spain)
4. Copper-nickel / segregation	Conformable sheet-like deposits, lens- and vein-like bodies	Nest-disseminated, massive, breccia	Pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, cubanite	Co, platinoids, S, Au	Rich, average, poor	Norilsk and Pechenga groups (Russia), Sedbury, Thomson (Canada), Bushveld, Karoo (South Africa), Kambalda (Australia) areas
5. Copper-iron-skarn/contact-metasomatic	Sheet- and columnar-shaped, complex-shaped deposits	Massive, nested, interspersed, veined	Chalcopyrite, magnetite, bornite, pyrrhotite, pyrite	Au, Ag, Fe, Co, Mo, Se, Te, S	Average	Turin group (Russia), Sayak group (Kazakhstan), Malko Tarnovo (Bulgaria), Rechk (Hungary), Ermsbre (Indonesia)
6. Quartz-sulfide vein/hydrothermal	Veins, vein zones, sometimes combined with metasomatic deposits	Massive, nested, brecciated, disseminated and vein-disseminated	Chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrite	Ag, Au, Pb, Zn, Cd, Te, Se, Bi, Sb, Mo	Rich, average	Kafanskoye (Armenia), Chatyrkulskoye (Kazakhstan), Rossen (Bulgaria), Butte (USA)

In global production, the priority of the named types is determined by their serial number in the table. Thus, the value decreases from the porphyry type to the rest. In Russian copper mining, global priorities are violated by the presence of a supergiant - the Norilsk ore district with copper-nickel ores, which occupies first place, while porphyry-type industrial facilities have not yet been identified. Abroad, copper-nickel deposits have a sharply subordinate importance.

In second place in terms of production in the Russian Federation are the copper pyrite deposits of the Ural region, although all of their total reserves are inferior to the reserves of cuprous sandstones of the Udokan deposit, which is now just beginning to be developed. Below we give brief description prom. types of copper deposits in the order that is inherent in the mineral resource base of the Russian Federation.

Sulfide copper-nickel deposits genetically related to differentiated massifs of ultrabasic and basic igneous rocks (peridotites, gabbro-norites, gabbro and gabbro-diabase). Copper-nickel ore bodies are located mainly in the bottom part of the intrusions, and sometimes in the host rocks of the intrusions. The ores are represented by continuous, brecciated, veinlet and disseminated varieties. Ore bodies, as a rule, are large in size: their length along strike and dip ranges from hundreds of meters to several kilometers, their thickness is up to 100 m; plate-shaped, sheet-shaped, lens-shaped, vein-shaped and more complex shapes; lie subhorizontally, less often gently or steeply inclined. The dominant development is in conformable sheet-like deposits of disseminated ores. Continuous ores are confined to the recumbent side of these deposits, forming separate layers, lenses and veins composed of massive, brecciated and densely disseminated varieties. Characteristic feature sulfide copper-nickel deposits is a relatively consistent mineral composition of the ores. The ores contain nickel, copper, cobalt, platinum group metals, as well as gold, silver, selenium, tellurium and sulfur. The copper content in the ore is 1-5%.

Deposits of cuprous sandstones and shales are confined to red formations and are located in marginal troughs, superimposed troughs, rift zones and other similar structures of folded areas and ancient shields.

The thickness of productive strata varies widely. Ore bodies are usually located in several horizons (up to 10, sometimes more) of gray lagoon-deltaic terrigenous, less often carbonate deposits, occurring among red-colored terrigenous strata. The total number of ore deposits in large deposits is very large - up to several hundred; their sizes are varied; The boundaries with the host rocks are unclear and are determined by sampling.

The characteristic form of ore deposits is the sheet form, as well as the lens- and ribbon-like form. The internal structure is characterized by a relatively uniform distribution of useful components; Among the predominant amount of disseminated ores of medium quality, interlayers, lenses and nests of richer ores are observed.

A distinctive feature of these ores is the variety of valuable components (copper and associated: silver, cobalt, zinc, lead, tellurium, rhenium, sometimes uranium and vanadium), their mineral forms (chalcopyrite, chalcocite, bornite, sphalerite, galena, etc.), grade oxidation with significant fluctuations in content (1-10%).

Copper pyrite (copper and copper-zinc) deposits associated mainly with formations of basaltoid magmatism of the soda series: basalt-rhyolite and basalt-andesite-dacite-liparite. In the volcanic complex, pyrite ores are localized mainly among acidic rocks, often forming several horizons.

The entire variety of forms of ore bodies in copper pyrite deposits is determined by the presence of five main structural and morphological types, some of which are usually leading for specific ore fields:

Sheet-like bodies occurring in accordance with the bedding of ore-bearing rocks;

The bodies are of a combined shape, the upper parts of which agree with the bedding, and the apophyses of the recumbent side, comparable in size, cut the bedding at large angles;

Steeply dipping lens-shaped, less often vein-shaped bodies, occupying a distinctly secant position relative to the bedding;

Deposits that are characterized by mutual transitions between steeply dipping lens-shaped bodies and deposits of a combined form;

Chest-shaped deposits have angular cross-sectional outlines and are characterized by variable combinations of steep and gentle components.

The largest deposits in terms of reserves are characterized by a predominance of bodies of complex chest and combined shapes.

Internal structure Copper pyrite ore bodies are characterized by a combination of massive (often banded) and disseminated ore textures. Massive ore bodies usually have clear geological boundaries; disseminated ores are usually associated by gradual transitions with weakly mineralized host rocks. An essential feature of massive ores is their fine-grained nature, which often turns into emulsion dissemination.

The ores are predominantly of pyrite-chalcopyrite-sphalerite composition with chalcocite, bornite, arsenopyrite, galena, barite, etc. The main useful components in them, in addition to copper and zinc, are iron and sulfur, and associated ones include gold, silver, cadmium, selenium, and tellurium. The ores of copper pyrite deposits are complex; Depending on the copper and zinc content, they are divided as follows:

Based on the amount of sulfides composing them (sulfur content), copper and copper-zinc ores are divided into: solid (more than 35% sulfur) and disseminated (up to 35% sulfur).

The scale of the deposits is very different, but medium-sized deposits predominate. The copper content in the ore is 1-2%.

Near the surface, copper pyrite deposits are characterized by the presence of an oxidation zone, which in its classical form (top to bottom) has three levels:

- “iron hat”, which is accumulations of brown iron ore, where the main minerals are iron hydroxides and oxides with small amounts of malachite; usually enriched with gold and silver;

Oxidized ores, where more than 50% of minerals are represented by oxide compounds - malachite, azurite, chrysocolla, etc.; these ores are difficult to enrich by flotation, but are easily leached with sulfuric acid solutions;

Zone of secondary sulfide enrichment, represented by chalcocite, cuprite, etc.; These are, as a rule, rich ores that can be easily enriched by flotation.

The copper pyrite type also includes a small group of pyrite copper and copper-zinc deposits in terrigenous complexes. The ore bodies generally lie in conformity with the host rocks, which are folded into large folds and disturbed by zones of crushing and shearing.

Wall-altered rocks in pyrite deposits are represented by sericite-chlorite-quartz, chlorite-hematite-carbonate metasomatites, and in areas of superimposed metamorphism - cordierite-antophyllite rocks. Often, wall-altered rocks contain the same ore minerals as industrial ores and are thus poor ores of copper, zinc, and gold.

Porphyry copper deposits are spatially and genetically associated with small intrusions of porphyry rocks of moderately acidic composition (diorites, granodiorites and their subvolcanic analogues) and are localized in their endocontacts and apical projections, pipe-shaped bodies of volumetric breccias.

Deposits of this type are large, measured in hundreds of meters and a few kilometers, stockworks with very significant reserves of metal; usually they do not have sharp geological boundaries, gradually turning into weakly mineralized rocks. Their shape depends mainly on the configuration of the ore-bearing intrusion, the properties of the host rocks, and the nature of pre-ore and post-ore fracturing. Based on the nature of the outlines of ore bodies in plan, deposits of a complex oval or ring shape and deposits of an elongated shape are distinguished.

In a vertical section, industrial porphyry copper ores form horizontal or slightly inclined lens-shaped, cape-shaped bodies of great thickness or stockworks; The typical shape of many deposits is a bowl or an inverted cone.

Very characteristic common feature Porphyry copper deposits have secondary vertical zoning; usually up to five zones are distinguished (from top to bottom): leaching, oxidized ores, mixed ores, secondary sulfide enrichment and primary ores; The thickness of the zones varies widely - from a few meters to a few hundred meters.

The ores are veinlet-disseminated, predominantly chalcopyrite or molybdenite-chalcopyrite composition with the development of secondary copper sulfides and oxidation zone minerals. Characterized by uneven impregnation and fine germination of sulfides, and above all molybdenite. In molybdenite, rhenium appears as an isomorphic impurity, which significantly affects the value of the ores. Average copper content in ores is 0.4-1.0%

All deposits of this type are accompanied by well-defined zones of hydrothermally altered rocks of predominantly biotite-sericite-chlorite-quartz composition.

Skarn copper deposits genetically related to differentiates of gabbro-diorite-granodiorite and granodiorite-syenite formations. The deposits are located in zones of skarnization and hornfelsing.

According to the conditions of occurrence and morphological features, contact-metasomatic deposits include sheet-like and irregular deposits in layered sedimentary-volcanogenic strata, ore bodies in direct contacts of intrusions with limestone, deposits in xenoliths of roof rocks of intrusive massifs, as well as ore bodies in tectonic zones. The size of ore bodies is small, their shape is varied. Sheet-like bodies with various complications in the form of apophyses, bulges, vein zones, and columnar deposits predominate.

The main ore minerals are chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, bornite, chalcocite, minor ones are sphalerite, galena, cobalt, silver minerals, native gold, and less commonly platinum. In the oxidation zone, malachite and azurite are formed, leading to the formation of solid monomineral blocks of jewelry quality.

Typical wall-ore alterations superimposed on skarn rocks include actinolitization, chloritization, silicification, sideritization, baritization, and dolomitization.

1.5.6. Quartz-sulfide (vein) deposits, formed as a result of fissure structures or metasomatic replacement of host rocks (mainly granitoid and volcanogenic), are usually distinguished by their small sizes (the first hundreds of meters along strike and dip with a thickness of 0.5–2 m, sometimes more), complex morphology of ore bodies, the presence swellings and constrictions, branches and apophysis. Ore veins are often accompanied by halos of veinlet-disseminated mineralization. Their internal structure is characterized by the development of disseminated-banded, nested and massive textures.

Deposits of this type usually contain small reserves of copper, and at present their practical significance is small.

In addition to the types described, industrial deposits are known native copper in the lake area Upper in altered basalts (USA), carbonatite Palabora field (South Africa), uranium-gold-copper Olipik-Dam deposit of structural unconformity type in Australia and Volkovskoye vanadium-iron-copper deposit in layered gabbroids in the Urals.

Of independent interest for development are technogenic deposits, formed as a result of storage of off-balance copper ores, copper-containing waste from enrichment (pyrite concentrate, tailings) and metallurgical (slag, cakes) processes. The composition and structure of technogenic deposits are determined by the geological and industrial type of the original natural deposit, the extraction method and the technological scheme for processing mineral raw materials, as well as the storage conditions and storage periods of waste.

Grouping of copper deposits by reserves: small - less than 100 thousand tons of copper, medium 100 thousand tons - 1 million tons of copper, large - more than 1 million tons of copper.

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